%0 Journal Article %J Sex Transm Dis %D 2016 %T HIV/Sexually Transmitted Infection Prevention Messaging: Targeting Root Causes of Sexual Risk Behavior. %A Manhart, Lisa E %A Epstein, Marina %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hill, Karl G %A Haggerty, Kevin P %A Catalano, Richard F %X

INTRODUCTION: Sexual risk behaviors (SRBs) often lead to sexually transmitted infections (STI), yet little is known about what drives SRB and whether this differs by sex.

METHOD: Participants (n = 920; 75% white) were drawn from the Raising Healthy Children study, enrolled in 1993 and 1994 in grades 1 to 2, and followed up through age 24/25 years. Lifetime STI diagnosis was defined by self-report or seropositivity for Chlamydia trachomatis or herpes simplex virus 2. Multivariable models assessed individual (social skills, behavioral disinhibition) and environmental factors (family involvement, school bonding, antisocial friends) predictive of STI diagnosis as mediated by 3 proximal SRB (sex under the influence of drugs or alcohol, condom use, lifetime number of sex partners).

RESULTS: Twenty-five percent of participants had ever had an STI. All SRBs differed by sex (P < 0.001), and female participants were more likely to have had an STI (P < 0.001). Behavioral disinhibition and antisocial friends in adolescence were associated with more SRB for both sexes, whereas social skills were associated with less SRB in female but more in male participants. Considering SRB and individual and environmental factors together, lifetime number of sex partners (adjusted relative risk [ARR], 1.04per partner; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.03-1.05) and inconsistent condom use (ARR, 1.10per year; 95% CI, 1.04-1.16) were associated with increased risk of STI, whereas social skills were associated with decreased risk of STI (ARR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.75-0.93). Behavioral disinhibition seemed to drive SRB, but family involvement mitigated this in several cases.

CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent environmental influences and individual characteristics drive some SRB and may be more effective targets for STI/HIV prevention interventions than proximal risk behaviors.

%B Sex Transm Dis %V 43 %P 71-7 %8 2016 Feb %G eng %N 2 %1 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26760178?dopt=Abstract %R 10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000402 %0 Journal Article %J Dev Psychopathol %D 2016 %T Time-varying effects of families and peers on adolescent marijuana use: Person-environment interactions across development. %A Epstein, Marina %A Hill, Karl G %A Roe, Stephanie S %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Iacono, William G %A McGue, Matt %A Kristman-Valente, Allison %A Catalano, Richard F %A Haggerty, Kevin P %X

Studies have demonstrated that the effects of two well-known predictors of adolescent substance use, family monitoring and antisocial peers, are not static but change over the course of adolescence. Moreover, these effects may differ for different groups of youth. The current study uses time-varying effect modeling to examine the changes in the association between family monitoring and antisocial peers and marijuana use from ages 11 to 19, and to compare these associations by gender and levels of behavioral disinhibition. Data are drawn from the Raising Healthy Children study, a longitudinal panel of 1,040 youth. The strength of association between family monitoring and antisocial peers and marijuana use was mostly steady over adolescence, and was greater for girls than for boys. Differences in the strength of the association were also evident by levels of behavioral disinhibition: youth with lower levels of disinhibition were more susceptible to the influence of parents and peers. Stronger influence of family monitoring on girls and less disinhibited youth was most evident in middle adolescence, whereas the stronger effect of antisocial peers was significant during middle and late adolescence. Implications for the timing and targeting of marijuana preventive interventions are discussed.

%B Dev Psychopathol %P 1-14 %8 2016 Jul 15 %G ENG %1 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27417425?dopt=Abstract %R 10.1017/S0954579416000559 %0 Journal Article %J Am J Public Health %D 2014 %T Long-term consequences of adolescent gang membership for adult functioning. %A Gilman, Amanda B %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Child %K Crime %K Female %K Health Status %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Mental Health %K Peer Group %K Public Assistance %K Risk Factors %K Substance-Related Disorders %K Violence %X

OBJECTIVES: We examined the possible public health consequences of adolescent gang membership for adult functioning.

METHODS: Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal study focusing on the development of positive and problem outcomes. Using propensity score matching and logistic regression analyses, we assessed the effects of adolescent gang membership on illegal behavior, educational and occupational attainment, and physical and mental health at the ages of 27, 30, and 33 years.

RESULTS: In comparison with their nongang peers, who had been matched on 23 confounding risk variables known to be related to selection into gang membership, those who had joined a gang in adolescence had poorer outcomes in multiple areas of adult functioning, including higher rates of self-reported crime, receipt of illegal income, incarceration, drug abuse or dependence, poor general health, and welfare receipt and lower rates of high school graduation.

CONCLUSIONS: The finding that adolescent gang membership has significant consequences in adulthood beyond criminal behavior indicates the public health importance of the development of effective gang prevention programs.

%B Am J Public Health %V 104 %P 938-45 %8 2014 May %G eng %N 5 %R 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301821 %0 Journal Article %J Prev Sci %D 2014 %T The onset of STI diagnosis through age 30: results from the Seattle Social Development Project Intervention. %A Hill, Karl G %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hawkins, J D %A Catalano, Richard F %A Kosterman, Rick %A Oesterle, Sabrina %A Abbott, Robert D %K Adolescent %K Adult %K Child %K Female %K Health Promotion %K Humans %K Interviews as Topic %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Outcome Assessment (Health Care) %K Parent-Child Relations %K Risk-Taking %K Sexually Transmitted Diseases %K Social Adjustment %K Unsafe Sex %K Urban Population %K Washington %X

The objectives of this study were to examine (1) whether the onset of sexually transmitted infections (STI) through age 30 differed for youths who received a social developmental intervention during elementary grades compared to those in the control condition; (2) potential social-developmental mediators of this intervention; and (3) the extent to which these results differed by ethnicity. A nonrandomized controlled trial followed participants to age 30, 18 years after the intervention ended. Three intervention conditions were compared: a full-intervention group, assigned to intervention in grades 1 through 6; a late intervention group, assigned to intervention in grades 5 and 6 only; and a no-treatment control group. Eighteen public elementary schools serving diverse neighborhoods including high-crime neighborhoods of Seattle are the setting of the study. Six hundred eight participants in three intervention conditions were interviewed from age 10 through 30. Interventions include teacher training in classroom instruction and management, child social and emotional skill development, and parent workshops. Outcome is the cumulative onset of participant report of STI diagnosis. Adolescent family environment, bonding to school, antisocial peer affiliation, early sex initiation, alcohol use, cigarette use, and marijuana use were tested as potential intervention mechanisms. Complementary log-log survival analysis found significantly lower odds of STI onset for the full-intervention compared to the control condition. The lowering of STI onset risk was significantly greater for African Americans and Asian Americans compared to European Americans. Family environment, school bonding, and delayed initiation of sexual behavior mediated the relationship between treatment and STI hazard. A universal intervention for urban elementary school children, focused on classroom management and instruction, children's social competence, and parenting practices may reduce the onset of STI through age 30, especially for African Americans.

%B Prev Sci %V 15 Suppl 1 %P S19-32 %8 2014 Feb %G eng %R 10.1007/s11121-013-0382-x %0 Journal Article %J Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol %D 2014 %T Prevalence and risk factors for self-reported violence of Osaka and Seattle male youths. %A Bui, Laura %A Farrington, David P %A Ueda, Mitsuaki %A Hill, Karl G %X

Traditionally, Japan has been regarded as a country with low crime. Comparative research has given insights into the extent of similarities and differences in crime between America and Japan. The importance of these studies is the examination of whether Western-established criminological knowledge is applicable to non-Western societies like Japan. Unfortunately, comparative self-report studies involving Japan and investigating youth offending are scarce. The current study investigates risk factors and self-reports of violence from Osaka and Seattle male youths. The findings reveal that Japanese male youths self-report a higher prevalence of violence than Seattle male youths. Risk factors for violence, issues of comparability, and prevalence versus strength of relationships of risk factors are examined. It is concluded that the higher prevalence of violence in Osaka is primarily a function of the higher prevalence of troubled peers and risk taking. The findings call for replication of this type of comparative research.

%B Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol %V 58 %P 1540-57 %8 2014 Dec %G eng %N 12 %R 10.1177/0306624X13501472 %0 Journal Article %J J Sex Res %D 2014 %T Sexual risk behavior in young adulthood: broadening the scope beyond early sexual initiation. %A Epstein, Marina %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Manhart, Lisa E %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Child %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Risk-Taking %K Sexual Behavior %K Time Factors %K Young Adult %X

A robust link between early sexual initiation and sexual risk-taking behavior is reported in previous studies. The relationship may not be causal, however, as the effect of common risk factors is often not considered. The current study examined whether early initiation was a key predictor of risky sexual behavior in the 20s and 30s, over and above co-occurring individual and environmental factors. Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal panel of 808 youth. Early predictors (ages 10 to 15) and sexual risk taking (ages 21 to 24 and 30 to 33) were assessed prospectively. Early sexual initiation (before age 15) was entered into a series of probit regressions that also included family, neighborhood, peer, and individual risk factors. Although a positive bivariate relation between early sexual initiation and sexual risk taking was observed at both ages, the link did not persist when co-occurring risk factors were included. Behavioral disinhibition and antisocial peer influences emerged as the strongest predictors of sexual risk over and above early sexual initiation. These results suggest that early sexual initiation must be considered in the context of common antecedents; public health policy aimed at delaying sexual intercourse alone is unlikely to substantially reduce sexual risk behavior in young adulthood.

%B J Sex Res %V 51 %P 721-30 %8 2014 %G eng %N 7 %R 10.1080/00224499.2013.849652 %0 Journal Article %J J Adolesc Health %D 2014 %T Understanding the link between early sexual initiation and later sexually transmitted infection: test and replication in two longitudinal studies. %A Epstein, Marina %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Manhart, Lisa E %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %A Haggerty, Kevin P %A Catalano, Richard F %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Age Factors %K Alcohol Drinking %K Child %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Models, Theoretical %K Puberty %K Risk Factors %K Risk-Taking %K Sexual Abstinence %K Sexual Behavior %K Sexually Transmitted Diseases %X

PURPOSE: Age at sexual initiation is strongly associated with sexually transmitted infections (STI); yet, prevention programs aiming to delay sexual initiation have shown mixed results in reducing STI. This study tested three explanatory mechanisms for the relationship between early sexual debut and STI: number of sexual partners, individual characteristics, and environmental antecedents.

METHODS: A test-and-replicate strategy was employed using two longitudinal studies: the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) and Raising Healthy Children (RHC). Childhood measures included pubertal age, behavioral disinhibition, and family, school, and peer influences. Alcohol use and age of sexual debut were measured during adolescence. Lifetime number of sexual partners and having sex under the influence were measured during young adulthood. Sexually transmitted infection diagnosis was self-reported at age 24. Early sex was defined as debut at <15 years. Path models were developed in SSDP evaluating relationships between measures, and were then tested in RHC.

RESULTS: The relationship between early sex and STI was fully mediated by lifetime sex partners in SSDP, but only partially in RHC, after accounting for co-occurring factors. Behavioral disinhibition predicted early sex, early alcohol use, number of sexual partners, and sex under the influence, but had no direct effect on STI. Family management protected against early sex and early alcohol use, whereas antisocial peers exacerbated the risk.

CONCLUSIONS: Early sexual initiation, a key mediator of STI, is driven by antecedents that influence multiple risk behaviors. Targeting co-occurring individual and environmental factors may be more effective than discouraging early sexual debut and may concomitantly improve other risk behaviors.

%B J Adolesc Health %V 54 %P 435-441.e2 %8 2014 Apr %G eng %N 4 %R 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.09.016 %0 Journal Article %J Drug Alcohol Depend %D 2013 %T Alcohol and tobacco use disorder comorbidity in young adults and the influence of romantic partner environments. %A Meacham, Meredith C %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hill, Karl G %A Epstein, Marina %A Hawkins, J D %K Adolescent %K Adult %K Alcoholism %K Comorbidity %K Conflict (Psychology) %K Depression %K Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders %K Ethnic Groups %K Female %K Humans %K Male %K Regression Analysis %K Sex Factors %K Sexual Partners %K Social Environment %K Socioeconomic Factors %K Tobacco Use %K Treatment Outcome %K Young Adult %X

BACKGROUND: Although there is considerable evidence that the development of tobacco dependence (TD) and that of alcohol use disorder (AUD) are intertwined, less is known about the comorbid development of these disorders. The present study examines tobacco dependence and alcohol use disorder comorbidity in young adulthood within the context of romantic partner relationships.

METHODS: Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a contemporary, ethnically diverse, and gender balanced longitudinal panel including 808 participants. A typological person-centered approach was used to assign participants to four outcome groups: no disorder, tobacco dependence (TD) only, alcohol use disorder (AUD) only, and comorbid (both). Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the association between partner general and substance-specific environments and single or dual alcohol and tobacco use disorder diagnosis in young adulthood (ages 24-33, n=628). Previous heavy alcohol and tobacco use were controlled for, as were dispositional characteristics, gender, ethnicity, adult SES, and adult depression.

RESULTS: Greater partner conflict increased the likelihood of being comorbid compared to having TD only or AUD only. Having a smoking partner increased the likelihood of being comorbid compared to having AUD only, but having a drinking partner did not significantly distinguish being comorbid from having TD only.

CONCLUSIONS: Findings demonstrated the utility of a comorbidity-based, person-centered approach and the influence of general and tobacco-specific, but not alcohol-specific, partner environments on comorbid alcohol and tobacco use disorders in young adulthood.

%B Drug Alcohol Depend %V 132 %P 149-57 %8 2013 Sep 1 %G eng %N 1-2 %R 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.017 %0 Journal Article %J Dev Psychol %D 2013 %T The association between parent early adult drug use disorder and later observed parenting practices and child behavior problems: Testing alternate models. %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hill, Karl G %A Guttmannova, Katarina %A Oesterle, Sabrina %A Hawkins, J D %A Catalano, Richard F %A McMahon, Robert J %K Adolescent %K Adult %K Child %K Child Behavior Disorders %K Child Rearing %K Family Relations %K Female %K Humans %K Male %K Models, Psychological %K Parent-Child Relations %K Parenting %K Personality %K Psychiatric Status Rating Scales %K Substance-Related Disorders %K Young Adult %X

This study tested the association between parent illicit drug use disorder (DUD) in early adulthood and observed parenting practices at ages 27-28 and examined the following 3 theoretically derived models explaining this link: (a) a disrupted parent adult functioning model,(b) a preexisting parent personality factor model, and (c) a disrupted adolescent family process model. Associations between study variables and child externalizing problems also were examined. Longitudinal data linking 2 generations were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) and The SSDP Intergenerational Project (TIP), and included 167 parents and their 2- to 8-year-old child. Path modeling revealed that parent DUD in early adulthood predicted later observed low-skilled parenting, which was related to child externalizing problems. The preexisting parent personality factor model was supported. Parent negative emotionality accounted for the association between parent early adult DUD and later parenting practices. Parent negative emotionality also was related directly to child externalizing behavior. Limited support for the disrupted transition to adulthood model was found. The disrupted adolescent family process model was not supported. Results suggest that problem drug use that occurs early in adulthood may affect later parenting skills, independent of subsequent parent drug use. Findings highlight the importance of parent negative emotionality in influencing his or her own problem behavior, interactions with his or her child, and his or her child's problem behavior. Prevention and treatment programs targeting young adult substance use, poor parenting practices, and child behavior problems should address parent personality factors that may contribute to these behaviors.

%B Dev Psychol %V 49 %P 887-99 %8 2013 May %G eng %N 5 %R 10.1037/a0029235 %0 Journal Article %J Dev Psychol %D 2013 %T The effect of general and drug-specific family environments on comorbid and drug-specific problem behavior: A longitudinal examination. %A Epstein, Marina %A Hill, Karl G %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hawkins, J D %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Age Factors %K Alcohol Drinking %K Child %K Child Behavior Disorders %K Comorbidity %K Family Relations %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Self Report %K Social Environment %K Tobacco Use Disorder %K Young Adult %X

Previous research has shown that the development of alcohol and tobacco dependence is linked and that both are influenced by environmental and intrapersonal factors, many of which likely interact over the life course. The present study examines the effects of general and alcohol- and tobacco-specific environmental influences in the family of origin (ages 10-18) and family of cohabitation (ages 27-30) on problem behavior and alcohol- and tobacco-specific outcomes at age 33. General environmental factors include family management, conflict, bonding, and involvement. Alcohol environment includes parental alcohol use, parents' attitudes toward alcohol, and children's involvement in family drinking. Tobacco-specific environment is assessed analogously. Additionally, analyses include the effects of childhood behavioral disinhibition, initial behavior problems, and age 18 substance use. Analyses were based on 469 participants drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) sample. Results indicated that (a) environmental factors within the family of origin and the family of cohabitation are both important predictors of problem behavior at age 33; (b) family of cohabitation influences partially mediate the effects of family of origin environments; (c) considerable continuity exists between adolescent and adult general and tobacco (but not alcohol) environments; age 18 alcohol and tobacco use partially mediates these relationships; and (d) childhood behavioral disinhibition contributed to age 33 outcomes, over and above the effects of family of cohabitation mediators. Implications for preventive interventions are discussed.

%B Dev Psychol %V 49 %P 1151-64 %8 2013 Jun %G eng %N 6 %R 10.1037/a0029309 %0 Journal Article %J Am J Public Health %D 2013 %T Using genetically informed, randomized prevention trials to test etiological hypotheses about child and adolescent drug use and psychopathology. %A Brody, Gene H %A Beach, Steven R H %A Hill, Karl G %A Howe, George W %A Prado, Guillermo %A Fullerton, Stephanie M %K Adolescent %K Child %K Gene-Environment Interaction %K Genetics, Behavioral %K Humans %K Molecular Biology %K Psychopathology %K Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic %K Research Design %K Risk Factors %K Substance-Related Disorders %X

In this essay, we describe a new era of public health research in which prevention science principles are combined with genomic science to produce gene × intervention (G × I) research. We note the roles of behavioral and molecular genetics in risk and protective mechanisms for drug use and psychopathology among children and adolescents, and the results of first-generation genetically informed prevention trials are reviewed. We also consider the need for second-generation research that focuses on G × I effects on mediators or intermediate processes. This research can be used to further understanding of etiological processes, to identify individual differences in children's and adolescents' responses to risk, and to increase the precision of prevention programs. We note the caveats about using genetic data to select intervention participants.

%B Am J Public Health %V 103 Suppl 1 %P S19-24 %8 2013 Oct %G eng %R 10.2105/AJPH.2012.301080 %0 Journal Article %J Compr Psychiatry %D 2012 %T Can patterns of alcohol use disorder in young adulthood help explain gender differences in depression? %A Lee, Jungeun O %A Kosterman, Rick %A McCarty, Carolyn A %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %K Adult %K Age Factors %K Alcohol-Related Disorders %K Cohort Studies %K Comorbidity %K Cross-Sectional Studies %K Depressive Disorder, Major %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Risk Factors %K Sex Factors %K Washington %K Young Adult %X

OBJECTIVE: To test whether gender differences in the prevalence of major depressive disorder differ by longitudinal patterns of alcohol use disorder symptoms.

METHOD: Data are from a prospective longitudinal study examining a broad range of mental health and substance use problems. A gender-balanced sample of 808 participants was interviewed at ages 21, 24, 27, and 30. The sample was divided into subgroups corresponding to longitudinal patterns of alcohol use disorder derived from latent class growth analysis.

RESULTS: Four patterns of alcohol use disorder symptoms were identified: A "low disorder symptom" group, a "decreaser" group, an "increaser" group, and a "chronic disorder symptom" group. Rates of depression were significantly higher for females only among those with a pattern of chronic or decreasing alcohol disorder symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS: Elevated rates of depression among females in young adulthood may depend on patterns of co-occurring alcohol disorder symptoms. Practitioners should pay particular attention to signs of chronic alcohol use disorders and associated risks for depression among young adult women.

%B Compr Psychiatry %V 53 %P 1071-7 %8 2012 Nov %G eng %N 8 %R 10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.03.012 %0 Journal Article %J Drug Alcohol Depend %D 2012 %T The effects of general and alcohol-specific peer factors in adolescence on trajectories of alcohol abuse disorder symptoms from 21 to 33 years. %A Lee, Jungeun O %A Hill, Karl G %A Guttmannova, Katarina %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hartigan, Lacey A %A Hawkins, J D %A Catalano, Richard F %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Alcohol Drinking %K Alcoholism %K Disease Progression %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Peer Group %K Risk Factors %K Social Behavior %X

BACKGROUND: The present study examines whether general and alcohol-specific peer risk factors from age 10 to 18 are associated with longitudinal patterns of adult alcohol abuse disorder symptoms from age 21 to 33.

METHODS: Using growth mixture modeling, trajectory groups of alcohol abuse disorder symptoms from age 21 to 33 were identified. We then examined the relationships between the identified trajectory groups of alcohol abuse disorder symptoms and respondents' own adolescent binge drinking, a general negative peer factor, and an alcohol-specific peer factor (having drinking peers) in adolescence using pseudo-class Wald Chi-square tests, and multinomial logistic regressions.

RESULTS: Four different trajectory groups of alcohol abuse disorder symptoms were identified: persistor group (3%), decreaser group (23%), escalator group (3%), and a no-disorder group (71%). Bivariate Wald Chi-square tests indicated that adolescent binge drinking behavior and general and alcohol-specific peer factors differentiated the adult alcohol abuse trajectory groups. Multivariate multinomial logistic regression showed that the general negative peer factors distinguished those who later persisted in alcohol abuse from those who desisted (i.e., persistor group vs. decreaser group) during young adulthood, even after adjusting for respondents' adolescent binge drinking. On the other hand, associating with drinking peers did not distinguish these trajectories.

CONCLUSION: Alcohol-specific peer influences appear to influence alcohol abuse disorder symptoms in the early 20s, while general negative peer exposure in adolescence increases in importance as a risk factor for alcohol abuse disorder symptom persistence in the late 20s and the early 30s.

%B Drug Alcohol Depend %V 121 %P 213-9 %8 2012 Mar 1 %G eng %N 3 %R 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.08.028 %0 Journal Article %J J Stud Alcohol Drugs %D 2012 %T Examining explanatory mechanisms of the effects of early alcohol use on young adult alcohol dependence. %A Guttmannova, Katarina %A Hill, Karl G %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Lee, Jungeun O %A Hartigan, Lacey A %A Hawkins, J D %A Catalano, Richard F %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adolescent Development %K Age Factors %K Age of Onset %K Alcohol Drinking %K Alcoholism %K Child %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Young Adult %X

OBJECTIVE: This study examined potential explanatory mechanisms linking childhood alcohol use onset and chronicity of adult alcohol dependence by testing the following three competing hypotheses: (1) a marker hypothesis, where early onset of alcohol use may be simply a marker for other factors that have been linked to both age at initiation and adult alcohol problems; (2) a compromised development hypothesis, where early alcohol initiation may interfere with adolescent development, which can lead to later alcohol problems; and (3) an increased substance use hypothesis, where early onset of alcohol use may lead to increased substance use in adolescence and, in turn, chronic alcohol dependence.

METHOD: Data came from a longitudinal community sample of 808 participants recruited at age 10 in 1985. Participants were followed through age 33 in 2008 with 92% retention.

RESULTS: Childhood onset of alcohol use (before age 11), when compared with initiation during adolescence, predicted an increased chronicity of adult alcohol dependence, even after accounting for the hypothesized confounds from the marker hypothesis. In addition, adolescent compromised functioning did not mediate this relationship between early alcohol use and chronicity of adult dependence (Hypothesis 2), nor did adolescent substance use (Hypothesis 3). However, compromised functioning and substance use in adolescence predicted increased chronicity of alcohol dependence in young adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS: Prevention efforts as early as the elementary grades should focus on delaying the onset of alcohol use and reducing substance use in adolescence as well as improving school functioning, reducing adolescent problem behaviors, and targeting adolescent peer networks.

%B J Stud Alcohol Drugs %V 73 %P 379-90 %8 2012 May %G eng %N 3 %0 Journal Article %J Soc Work Res %D 2012 %T The role of educational aspirations and expectations in the discontinuity of intergenerational low-income status between generations %A Lee, Jungeun O %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %X

The present study investigates one potential mechanism mediating continuity and discontinuity in low-income status across generations: children's educational aspirations and expectations. Data are drawn from a community sample of 808 students followed from age 10 into their 30s. Four subgroups of trajectories of children's educational expectations and aspirations were identified from ages 10 to 18: a "stable high" group, a "stable low" group, an "increaser" group, and a "decreaser" group. Among youths from low-income families, those in the stable high educational aspirations and expectations group and the increaser group were equally likely to graduate from high school. High school graduation was positively associated with level of total household income at age 30. Findings suggest that social work efforts that support the development of high educational aspirations and expectations in children may serve to reduce the intergenerational continuity of low-income status.

%B Soc Work Res %V 36 %8 2012 Jun 1 %G eng %N 2 %R 10.1093/swr/svs025 %0 Journal Article %J J Stud Alcohol Drugs %D 2011 %T Men's and women's pathways to adulthood and associated substance misuse. %A Oesterle, Sabrina %A Hawkins, J D %A Hill, Karl G %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adolescent Development %K Adult %K Educational Status %K Female %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Parenting %K Prospective Studies %K Risk Factors %K Sex Factors %K Single Person %K Smoking %K Substance-Related Disorders %K Urban Health %K Washington %K Young Adult %X

OBJECTIVE: Social role transitions have been linked to changes in substance use and misuse during young adulthood. This study examined how commonly observed pathways to adulthood, defined by education, employment, marriage, and parenthood, were associated with alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana misuse from ages 18 to 33.

METHOD: Data came from a longitudinal panel of 412 men and 396 women recruited when they were in fifth grade in Seattle public schools in 1985. Participants were followed through age 33 in 2008, with 92% retention.

RESULTS: Young adults who had little postsecondary education and remained unmarried through age 30 generally had the highest rates of substance misuse. Those who were involved in postsecondary education and postponed family formation had the lowest rates, particularly with respect to daily smoking and nicotine dependence. Parenting during the young adult years was associated with lower rates of substance misuse for both men and women. However, taking on parenting responsibilities early, during the late teen years and early 20s (observed mostly for women), was associated with higher rates of tobacco misuse. Differences in substance misuse by pathways to adulthood were fairly constant across the young adulthood years and were already observed at age 18, suggesting that substance misuse patterns are established early.

CONCLUSIONS: Young adults may change their substance use only partially in response to new freedoms and responsibilities in young adulthood. Preventive efforts should include a focus on early initiation of substance use and educational experiences that move people into life trajectories and associated substance misuse patterns.

%B J Stud Alcohol Drugs %V 72 %P 763-73 %8 2011 Sep %G eng %N 5 %0 Journal Article %J Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol %D 2011 %T Observed parenting behavior with teens: measurement invariance and predictive validity across race. %A Skinner, Martie L %A MacKenzie, Elizabeth P %A Haggerty, Kevin P %A Hill, Karl G %A Roberson, Kendra C %K Adolescent %K Adult %K African Americans %K European Continental Ancestry Group %K Female %K Humans %K Parent-Child Relations %K Parenting %K Parents %K Reproducibility of Results %K Socioeconomic Factors %X

Previous reports supporting measurement equality between European American and African American families have often focused on self-reported risk factors or observed parent behavior with young children. This study examines equality of measurement of observer ratings of parenting behavior with adolescents during structured tasks; mean levels of observed parenting; and predictive validity of teen self-reports of antisocial behaviors and beliefs using a sample of 163 African American and 168 European American families. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses supported measurement invariance across ethnic groups for four measures of observed parenting behavior: prosocial rewards, psychological costs, antisocial rewards, and problem solving. Some mean-level differences were found: African American parents exhibited lower levels of prosocial rewards, higher levels of psychological costs, and lower problem solving when compared to European Americans. No significant mean difference was found in rewards for antisocial behavior. Multigroup structural equation models suggested comparable relationships across race (predictive validity) between parenting constructs and youth antisocial constructs (i.e., drug initiation, positive drug attitudes, antisocial attitudes, problem behaviors) in all but one of the tested relationships. This study adds to existing evidence that family-based interventions targeting parenting behaviors can be generalized to African American families.

%B Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol %V 17 %P 252-60 %8 2011 Jul %G eng %N 3 %R 10.1037/a0024730 %0 Journal Article %J J Adolesc Health %D 2011 %T The role of maternal early-life and later-life risk factors on offspring low birth weight: Findings from a three-generational study. %A Gavin, Amelia R %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %A Maas, Carl %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Alcohol Drinking %K Birth Weight %K Child Abuse %K Child of Impaired Parents %K Depression %K Female %K Humans %K Infant, Low Birth Weight %K Infant, Newborn %K Intergenerational Relations %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Obesity %K Risk Factors %K Smoking %K Social Class %X

PURPOSE: This study examined three research questions: (1) Is there an association between maternal early-life economic disadvantage and the birth weight of later-born offspring? (2) Is there an association between maternal abuse in childhood and the birth weight of later-born offspring? (3) To what extent are these early-life risks mediated through adolescent and adult substance use, mental and physical health status, and adult socioeconomic status (SES)?

METHODS: Analyses used structural equation modeling to examine data from two longitudinal studies, which included three generations. The first generation (G1) and the second generation (G2) were enrolled in the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP), and the third generation (G3) was enrolled in the SSDP Intergenerational Project. Data for the study (N = 136) focused on (G2) mothers enrolled in the SSDP and their children (G3).

RESULTS: Analyses revealed that G2 low childhood SES predicted G3 offspring birth weight. Early childhood abuse among G2 respondents predicted G3 offspring birth weight through a mediated pathway including G2 adolescent substance use and G2 prenatal substance use. Birth weight was unrelated to maternal adult SES, depression, or obesity.

CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to identify the effect of maternal early-life risks of low childhood SES and child maltreatment on later-born offspring birth weight. These findings have far-reaching effects on the cumulative risk associated with early-life economic disadvantage and childhood maltreatment. Such findings encourage policies and interventions that enhance child health at birth by taking the mother's own early-life and development into account.

%B J Adolesc Health %V 49 %P 166-71 %8 2011 Aug %G eng %N 2 %R 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.11.246 %0 Journal Article %J J Stud Alcohol Drugs %D 2011 %T Sensitive periods for adolescent alcohol use initiation: Predicting the lifetime occurrence and chronicity of alcohol problems in adulthood. %A Guttmannova, Katarina %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hill, Karl G %A Lee, Jungeun O %A Hawkins, J D %A Woods, M L %A Catalano, Richard F %K Adolescent %K Adult %K Age Factors %K Age of Onset %K Alcohol Drinking %K Alcohol-Related Disorders %K Alcoholism %K Child %K Ethanol %K Female %K Forecasting %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Risk %K Social Environment %K Socioeconomic Factors %K Substance-Related Disorders %K Time Factors %X

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the association between age at alcohol use onset and adult alcohol misuse and dependence by testing the sensitive-period hypothesis that early adolescence (11-14) is a vulnerable period of development during which initiating alcohol use is particularly harmful.

METHOD: Data came from a longitudinal panel of 808 participants recruited in 1981. Participants were followed through age 33 in 2008 with 92% retention.

RESULTS: Onset of alcohol use before age 11 (late childhood), when compared with initiation during early adolescence, was related to an increased chronicity of adult alcohol dependence, even after accounting for sociodemographic controls and other substance use in adolescence. The present study finds no evidence that early adolescence is a particularly sensitive period for the onset of alcohol use. Findings related to the onset of regular alcohol use and the chronicity of alcohol dependence suggest that the onset of regular drinking before age 21 is problematic, but no one adolescent period is more sensitive than others. Specifically, although all age groups that started drinking regularly before age 21 had a greater rate of alcohol dependence in adulthood, initiation of regular use of alcohol at or before age 14 was not related to greater chronicity of alcohol dependence than the initiation of regular use of alcohol in middle or late adolescence.

CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest the importance of delaying the onset of alcohol use through prevention efforts as early as the elementary grades. In addition, prevention efforts should focus on preventing the onset of regular drinking before age 21.

%B J Stud Alcohol Drugs %V 72 %P 221-31 %8 2011 Mar %G eng %N 2 %0 Journal Article %J Drug Alcohol Depend %D 2011 %T Strategies for characterizing complex phenotypes and environments: General and specific family environmental predictors of young adult tobacco dependence, alcohol use disorder, and co-occurring problems. %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Hill, Karl G %A Meacham, Meredith C %A Young, Susan E %A Hawkins, J D %K Adolescent %K Alcohol Drinking %K Alcoholism %K Child %K Family %K Female %K HIV Infections %K Humans %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Risk Factors %K Risk-Taking %K Sexual Behavior %K Smoking %K Social Environment %K Tobacco Use Disorder %K Young Adult %X

BACKGROUND: Defining phenotypes in studies of tobacco and alcohol misuse is difficult because of the complexity of these behaviors and their strong association with each other and with other problem behaviors. The present paper suggests a strategy for addressing this issue by conceptualizing and partitioning variance in phenotypes into either general or substance/behavior-specific. The paper also applies the general or substance/behavior-specific conceptualization to environmental predictors of tobacco and alcohol misuse and other problem behaviors.

METHODS: Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a contemporary, ethnically diverse and gender-balanced longitudinal panel including 808 participants. Latent variable modeling was used to partition variance in young adult (age 24) nicotine dependence, alcohol abuse and dependence, illicit drug abuse and dependence, involvement in crime, and engagement in HIV sexual risk behavior into general problem behavior and behavior-specific variance. Similarly, measures of general, drinking-specific, and smoking-specific adolescent family environment were constructed.

RESULTS: Consistent with expectations, more positive general family environment during adolescence was associated with lower levels of shared variance in problem behaviors at age 24, but not with unique variance in tobacco or alcohol use disorder. Higher levels of family smoking and drinking environments during adolescence, however, were positively associated with unique variance in tobacco and alcohol use disorder, respectively, but did not predict shared variance in problem behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS: Results support the utility of the proposed approach. Ways in which this approach might contribute to future molecular genetic studies are discussed.

%B Drug Alcohol Depend %V 118 %P 444-51 %8 2011 Nov 1 %G eng %N 2-3 %R 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002 %0 Journal Article %J J Marriage Fam %D 2010 %T Men’s and women’s pathways to adulthood and their adolescent precursors %A Oesterle, Sabrina %A Hawkins, J D %A Hill, Karl G %A Bailey, Jennifer A %X

This study compared men's and women's pathways to adulthood by examining how role transitions in education, work, marriage, and parenthood intersect and form developmental pathways from ages 18-30. The study investigated how sociodemographic factors and adolescent experiences were associated with these pathways. We used latent class analysis to analyze longitudinal data from a gender-balanced panel of 808 contemporary young adults. We found three similar latent pathways for both genders, but men and women differed in the timing of marriage and when they began to live with children and the likelihood of combining both roles. The present study points to the continued, though differential, relevance of marriage and family in the transition to adulthood for men and women.

%B J Marriage Fam %V 72 %P 1436-1453 %8 2010 Oct %G eng %N 5 %R 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00775.x %0 Journal Article %J Drug Alcohol Depend %D 2010 %T Person-environment interaction in the prediction of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence in adulthood. %A Hill, Karl G %A Hawkins, J D %A Bailey, Jennifer A %A Catalano, Richard F %A Abbott, Robert D %A Shapiro, Valerie B %K Adolescent %K Adolescent Behavior %K Adult %K Alcoholism %K Anxiety %K Family %K Female %K Humans %K Inhibition (Psychology) %K Linear Models %K Longitudinal Studies %K Male %K Predictive Value of Tests %K Social Environment %K Young Adult %X

BACKGROUND: Behavioral disinhibition (externalizing/impulsivity) and behavioral inhibition (internalizing/anxiety) may contribute to the development of alcohol abuse and dependence. But tests of person-by-environment interactions in predicting alcohol use disorders are needed. This study examined the extent to which interactions between behavioral disinhibition, behavioral inhibition and family management during adolescence predict alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence at age 27.

METHODS: This study used longitudinal data from a community sample of 808 men and women interviewed from ages 10 to 27 in the Seattle Social Development Project. Zero-order correlations followed by a series of nested regressions examined the relationships between individual characteristics (behavioral disinhibition and behavioral inhibition/anxiety) and environment (good vs. poor family management practices during adolescence) in predicting alcohol abuse and dependence criterion counts at age 27.

RESULTS: Behavioral disinhibition and poor family management predicted increased likelihood of both alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence at age 27. Behavioral inhibition/anxiety was unrelated to both outcomes. Youths high in behavioral disinhibition were at increased risk for later alcohol abuse and dependence only in consistently poorly managed family environments. In consistently well-managed families, high levels of behavioral disinhibition did not increase risk for later alcohol abuse or dependence.

CONCLUSIONS: Behavioral disinhibition increases risk for alcohol abuse and dependence in early adulthood only for individuals who experience poor family management during adolescence. Interventions seeking to reduce environmental risks by strengthening consistent positive family management practices may prevent later alcohol abuse and dependence among individuals at risk due to behavioral disinhibition.

%B Drug Alcohol Depend %V 110 %P 62-9 %8 2010 Jul 1 %G eng %N 1-2 %R 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.02.005